# Sovereignty Module: Stack the Stone

## Complete Dry Stone Wall Construction: From Field to Fence

Dry stone walls use no mortar, relying entirely on the skill of the builder and the weight of the stone. This campaign covers stone selection, wall anatomy, building technique, and structural principles.

### Chapter 1: Wall Types

| Type | Height | Width (base) | Purpose | Difficulty |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single wall (garden) | 2-3 feet | 12-18 inches | Garden border, raised bed | Low |
| Double wall (field) | 3-5 feet | 24-36 inches | Livestock fence, property boundary | Moderate |
| Retaining wall | 2-6 feet | 18-36 inches | Hold back earth on slopes | Moderate-high |
| Ha-ha (sunken fence) | 3-4 feet (below grade) | 24-30 inches | Invisible livestock barrier | High |
| Building wall (structural) | 6-10 feet | 36-48 inches | Load-bearing building wall | Very high |

### Chapter 2: Wall Anatomy

| Component | Location | Purpose | Stone Type |
|---|---|---|---|
| Foundation stones | Below ground, in trench | Stable base, prevent settling | Largest, flattest stones |
| Through stones (tie stones) | Span full wall width | Tie two faces together | Long stones, full wall width |
| Face stones | Outer surfaces (both sides) | Visible wall face, weather protection | Flat faces, uniform size |
| Hearting (fill) | Between two faces | Fill void, add weight | Small, irregular stones |
| Cope stones (cap) | Top of wall | Protect wall top, add weight | Heavy, flat, or upright stones |
| Batter | Wall narrows from base to top | Stability (gravity pulls inward) | N/A (design feature) |

### Chapter 3: Building Technique

Double wall construction: 1) Dig foundation trench 6-8 inches deep, width of wall base. 2) Lay foundation stones (largest, flattest stones, level). 3) Set string lines for both faces (guides for straight, plumb walls). 4) Build two parallel faces simultaneously. 5) Each stone bridges the joint below (one over two rule). 6) Tilt each stone slightly inward (toward center of wall). 7) Fill center (hearting) with small stones as you build each course. 8) Place through stones every 3-4 feet horizontally, every 2-3 courses vertically. 9) Through stones span the full wall width, tying both faces together. 10) Maintain batter: wall narrows from base to top (1 inch per foot of height). 11) Cap with cope stones (heavy stones on top, mortared if desired).

| Principle | Rule | Why |
|---|---|---|
| One over two | Each stone spans the joint between two stones below | Prevents vertical crack lines |
| Tilt inward | Stones slope slightly toward wall center | Gravity holds wall together |
| Through stones | Full-width stones every 3-4 feet | Ties two faces into one structure |
| Batter | Wall narrows 1 inch per foot of height | Creates inward lean for stability |
| Hearting | Pack center tightly with small stones | Adds mass, prevents face stones from pushing inward |
| Level courses | Keep courses roughly level | Even weight distribution |

### Chapter 4: Stone Selection and Shaping

| Stone Type | Workability | Availability | Durability | Best For |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Limestone | Easy to shape | Common | Very good | All wall types |
| Sandstone | Easy to shape | Common | Good | All wall types |
| Granite | Difficult to shape | Common | Excellent | Foundations, heavy walls |
| Slate/schist | Splits into flat pieces | Regional | Good | Flat-coursed walls |
| Fieldstone (mixed) | Variable | Very common | Variable | Rustic walls |

Stone shaping tools: 1) Stone hammer (2-4 lbs): rough shaping, breaking. 2) Pitching tool: removes large bumps from face. 3) Point chisel: detailed shaping. 4) Flat chisel: creating flat surfaces. 5) Trace (wide chisel): splitting along grain. 6) Most dry stone walls use minimally shaped stone (skill is in selection and placement).

### Chapter 5: Structural Principles

| Failure Mode | Cause | Prevention |
|---|---|---|
| Bulging | Face stones pushed outward by hearting | Tilt stones inward, use through stones |
| Toppling | Wind, animal pressure, no batter | Maintain batter, heavy cope stones |
| Settlement | Poor foundation, soft ground | Dig to firm soil, use large foundation stones |
| Frost heave | Water freezes in wall, expands | Good drainage at base, avoid trapping water |
| Running joints | Vertical joints align across courses | Follow one-over-two rule strictly |

### Reference Card

1. One over two, two over one (every stone must bridge the joint between the stones below it; this is the fundamental rule of all stone and brick construction). 2. Through stones tie the wall together (long stones that span the full width of the wall connect both faces into a single structure; without them, the wall is two separate faces that will separate). 3. Batter creates stability (a wall that narrows from base to top leans inward under its own weight; this inward lean resists toppling from wind and animal pressure). 4. Tilt every stone inward (each stone should slope slightly toward the center of the wall; outward-tilting stones are pushed out by the weight above them). 5. Pack the hearting tight (the small stones filling the center of the wall add mass and prevent face stones from being pushed inward; loose hearting leads to bulging). 6. The foundation is underground (dig a trench and lay the largest, flattest stones below grade; a wall built on the surface will settle and lean). 7. Cope stones protect the wall (heavy stones on top prevent rain from entering the wall core and add weight that holds the wall together; they are the most important course). 8. A well-built dry stone wall lasts centuries (walls in Britain and Ireland built 200-500 years ago still stand; the technique is proven and the material is permanent).